On reversible, endoreversible, and irreversible heat device cycles versus the Carnot cycle: A pedagogical approach to account for losses

In this work we analyze the deviations of reversible cycles (for both heat engines and refrigerators) from the corresponding Carnot cycle operating between the same extreme temperatures, and deviations of irreversible cycles from their corresponding reversible realization while putting emphasis on the corresponding losses. The endoreversible models fit in the proposed framework. Two suitable loss factors, which do not need the explicit calculation of entropy variations, are introduced. The behavior of these factors and their interplay allow for a clear and pedagogical visualization of where external and internal irreversibilities are located, and their intensities in terms of the main variables describing the cycle. The analysis could be used as a starting point for more advanced studies on modeling and optimization of real devices and installations.